Move contents of dhall under a semantics submodule

6 files changed, 2828 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/dhall/src/semantics/phase/binary.rs b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/binary.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b1e7638
--- /dev/null
+++ b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/binary.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,748 @@
+use itertools::Itertools;
+use serde_cbor::value::value as cbor;
+use std::iter::FromIterator;
+use std::vec;
+
+use crate::syntax::map::DupTreeMap;
+use crate::syntax::{
+    Expr, ExprF, FilePath, FilePrefix, Hash, Import, ImportLocation,
+    ImportMode, Integer, InterpolatedText, Label, Natural, RawExpr, Scheme,
+    Span, URL, V,
+};
+
+use crate::error::{DecodeError, EncodeError};
+use crate::phase::DecodedExpr;
+
+pub(crate) fn decode(data: &[u8]) -> Result<DecodedExpr, DecodeError> {
+    match serde_cbor::de::from_slice(data) {
+        Ok(v) => cbor_value_to_dhall(&v),
+        Err(e) => Err(DecodeError::CBORError(e)),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn encode<E>(expr: &Expr<E>) -> Result<Vec<u8>, EncodeError> {
+    serde_cbor::ser::to_vec(&Serialize::Expr(expr))
+        .map_err(|e| EncodeError::CBORError(e))
+}
+
+// Should probably rename this
+pub fn rc<E>(x: RawExpr<E>) -> Expr<E> {
+    Expr::new(x, Span::Decoded)
+}
+
+fn cbor_value_to_dhall(data: &cbor::Value) -> Result<DecodedExpr, DecodeError> {
+    use cbor::Value::*;
+    use crate::syntax::{BinOp, Builtin, Const};
+    use ExprF::*;
+    Ok(rc(match data {
+        String(s) => match Builtin::parse(s) {
+            Some(b) => ExprF::Builtin(b),
+            None => match s.as_str() {
+                "True" => BoolLit(true),
+                "False" => BoolLit(false),
+                "Type" => Const(Const::Type),
+                "Kind" => Const(Const::Kind),
+                "Sort" => Const(Const::Sort),
+                _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError("builtin".to_owned()))?,
+            },
+        },
+        U64(n) => Var(V(Label::from("_"), *n as usize)),
+        F64(x) => DoubleLit((*x).into()),
+        Bool(b) => BoolLit(*b),
+        Array(vec) => match vec.as_slice() {
+            [String(l), U64(n)] => {
+                if l.as_str() == "_" {
+                    Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "`_` variable was encoded incorrectly".to_owned(),
+                    ))?
+                }
+                let l = Label::from(l.as_str());
+                Var(V(l, *n as usize))
+            }
+            [U64(0), f, args @ ..] => {
+                if args.is_empty() {
+                    Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "Function application must have at least one argument"
+                            .to_owned(),
+                    ))?
+                }
+                let mut f = cbor_value_to_dhall(&f)?;
+                for a in args {
+                    let a = cbor_value_to_dhall(&a)?;
+                    f = rc(App(f, a))
+                }
+                return Ok(f);
+            }
+            [U64(1), x, y] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                Lam(Label::from("_"), x, y)
+            }
+            [U64(1), String(l), x, y] => {
+                if l.as_str() == "_" {
+                    Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "`_` variable was encoded incorrectly".to_owned(),
+                    ))?
+                }
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                let l = Label::from(l.as_str());
+                Lam(l, x, y)
+            }
+            [U64(2), x, y] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                Pi(Label::from("_"), x, y)
+            }
+            [U64(2), String(l), x, y] => {
+                if l.as_str() == "_" {
+                    Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "`_` variable was encoded incorrectly".to_owned(),
+                    ))?
+                }
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                let l = Label::from(l.as_str());
+                Pi(l, x, y)
+            }
+            [U64(3), U64(n), x, y] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                use BinOp::*;
+                let op = match n {
+                    0 => BoolOr,
+                    1 => BoolAnd,
+                    2 => BoolEQ,
+                    3 => BoolNE,
+                    4 => NaturalPlus,
+                    5 => NaturalTimes,
+                    6 => TextAppend,
+                    7 => ListAppend,
+                    8 => RecursiveRecordMerge,
+                    9 => RightBiasedRecordMerge,
+                    10 => RecursiveRecordTypeMerge,
+                    11 => ImportAlt,
+                    12 => Equivalence,
+                    _ => {
+                        Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError("binop".to_owned()))?
+                    }
+                };
+                BinOp(op, x, y)
+            }
+            [U64(4), t] => {
+                let t = cbor_value_to_dhall(&t)?;
+                EmptyListLit(rc(App(rc(ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::List)), t)))
+            }
+            [U64(4), Null, rest @ ..] => {
+                let rest = rest
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(cbor_value_to_dhall)
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                NEListLit(rest)
+            }
+            [U64(5), Null, x] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                SomeLit(x)
+            }
+            // Old-style optional literals
+            [U64(5), t] => {
+                let t = cbor_value_to_dhall(&t)?;
+                App(rc(ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::OptionalNone)), t)
+            }
+            [U64(5), t, x] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let t = cbor_value_to_dhall(&t)?;
+                Annot(
+                    rc(SomeLit(x)),
+                    rc(App(rc(ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Optional)), t)),
+                )
+            }
+            [U64(6), x, y] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                Merge(x, y, None)
+            }
+            [U64(6), x, y, z] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                let z = cbor_value_to_dhall(&z)?;
+                Merge(x, y, Some(z))
+            }
+            [U64(7), Object(map)] => {
+                let map = cbor_map_to_dhall_map(map)?;
+                RecordType(map)
+            }
+            [U64(8), Object(map)] => {
+                let map = cbor_map_to_dhall_map(map)?;
+                RecordLit(map)
+            }
+            [U64(9), x, String(l)] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let l = Label::from(l.as_str());
+                Field(x, l)
+            }
+            [U64(10), x, Array(arr)] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                if let [y] = arr.as_slice() {
+                    let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                    ProjectionByExpr(x, y)
+                } else {
+                    Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "projection-by-expr".to_owned(),
+                    ))?
+                }
+            }
+            [U64(10), x, rest @ ..] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let labels = rest
+                    .iter()
+                    .map(|s| match s {
+                        String(s) => Ok(Label::from(s.as_str())),
+                        _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                            "projection".to_owned(),
+                        )),
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<_, _>>()?;
+                Projection(x, labels)
+            }
+            [U64(11), Object(map)] => {
+                let map = cbor_map_to_dhall_opt_map(map)?;
+                UnionType(map)
+            }
+            [U64(12), ..] => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                "Union literals are not supported anymore".to_owned(),
+            ))?,
+            [U64(14), x, y, z] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                let z = cbor_value_to_dhall(&z)?;
+                BoolIf(x, y, z)
+            }
+            [U64(15), U64(x)] => NaturalLit(*x as Natural),
+            [U64(16), U64(x)] => IntegerLit(*x as Integer),
+            [U64(16), I64(x)] => IntegerLit(*x as Integer),
+            [U64(18), String(first), rest @ ..] => {
+                TextLit(InterpolatedText::from((
+                    first.clone(),
+                    rest.iter()
+                        .tuples()
+                        .map(|(x, y)| {
+                            let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                            let y = match y {
+                                String(s) => s.clone(),
+                                _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                    "text".to_owned(),
+                                ))?,
+                            };
+                            Ok((x, y))
+                        })
+                        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()?,
+                )))
+            }
+            [U64(19), t] => {
+                let t = cbor_value_to_dhall(&t)?;
+                Assert(t)
+            }
+            [U64(24), hash, U64(mode), U64(scheme), rest @ ..] => {
+                let mode = match mode {
+                    0 => ImportMode::Code,
+                    1 => ImportMode::RawText,
+                    2 => ImportMode::Location,
+                    _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(format!(
+                        "import/mode/unknown_mode: {:?}",
+                        mode
+                    )))?,
+                };
+                let hash = match hash {
+                    Null => None,
+                    Bytes(bytes) => match bytes.as_slice() {
+                        [18, 32, rest @ ..] => {
+                            Some(Hash::SHA256(rest.to_vec()))
+                        }
+                        _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(format!(
+                            "import/hash/unknown_multihash: {:?}",
+                            bytes
+                        )))?,
+                    },
+                    _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "import/hash/should_be_bytes".to_owned(),
+                    ))?,
+                };
+                let mut rest = rest.iter();
+                let location = match scheme {
+                    0 | 1 => {
+                        let scheme = match scheme {
+                            0 => Scheme::HTTP,
+                            _ => Scheme::HTTPS,
+                        };
+                        let headers = match rest.next() {
+                            Some(Null) => None,
+                            Some(x) => {
+                                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                                Some(x)
+                            }
+                            _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                "import/remote/headers".to_owned(),
+                            ))?,
+                        };
+                        let authority = match rest.next() {
+                            Some(String(s)) => s.to_owned(),
+                            _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                "import/remote/authority".to_owned(),
+                            ))?,
+                        };
+                        let query = match rest.next_back() {
+                            Some(Null) => None,
+                            Some(String(s)) => Some(s.to_owned()),
+                            _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                "import/remote/query".to_owned(),
+                            ))?,
+                        };
+                        let file_path = rest
+                            .map(|s| match s.as_string() {
+                                Some(s) => Ok(s.clone()),
+                                None => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                    "import/remote/path".to_owned(),
+                                )),
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Result<_, _>>()?;
+                        let path = FilePath { file_path };
+                        ImportLocation::Remote(URL {
+                            scheme,
+                            authority,
+                            path,
+                            query,
+                            headers,
+                        })
+                    }
+                    2 | 3 | 4 | 5 => {
+                        let prefix = match scheme {
+                            2 => FilePrefix::Absolute,
+                            3 => FilePrefix::Here,
+                            4 => FilePrefix::Parent,
+                            5 => FilePrefix::Home,
+                            _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                "import/local/prefix".to_owned(),
+                            ))?,
+                        };
+                        let file_path = rest
+                            .map(|s| match s.as_string() {
+                                Some(s) => Ok(s.clone()),
+                                None => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                    "import/local/path".to_owned(),
+                                )),
+                            })
+                            .collect::<Result<_, _>>()?;
+                        let path = FilePath { file_path };
+                        ImportLocation::Local(prefix, path)
+                    }
+                    6 => {
+                        let env = match rest.next() {
+                            Some(String(s)) => s.to_owned(),
+                            _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                "import/env".to_owned(),
+                            ))?,
+                        };
+                        ImportLocation::Env(env)
+                    }
+                    7 => ImportLocation::Missing,
+                    _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                        "import/type".to_owned(),
+                    ))?,
+                };
+                Import(crate::syntax::Import {
+                    mode,
+                    hash,
+                    location,
+                })
+            }
+            [U64(25), bindings @ ..] => {
+                let mut tuples = bindings.iter().tuples();
+                let bindings = (&mut tuples)
+                    .map(|(x, t, v)| {
+                        let x = x.as_string().ok_or_else(|| {
+                            DecodeError::WrongFormatError(
+                                "let/label".to_owned(),
+                            )
+                        })?;
+                        let x = Label::from(x.as_str());
+                        let t = match t {
+                            Null => None,
+                            t => Some(cbor_value_to_dhall(&t)?),
+                        };
+                        let v = cbor_value_to_dhall(&v)?;
+                        Ok((x, t, v))
+                    })
+                    .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()?;
+                let expr = tuples.into_buffer().next().ok_or_else(|| {
+                    DecodeError::WrongFormatError("let/expr".to_owned())
+                })?;
+                let expr = cbor_value_to_dhall(expr)?;
+                return Ok(bindings
+                    .into_iter()
+                    .rev()
+                    .fold(expr, |acc, (x, t, v)| rc(Let(x, t, v, acc))));
+            }
+            [U64(26), x, y] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                Annot(x, y)
+            }
+            [U64(27), x] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                ToMap(x, None)
+            }
+            [U64(27), x, y] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                let y = cbor_value_to_dhall(&y)?;
+                ToMap(x, Some(y))
+            }
+            [U64(28), x] => {
+                let x = cbor_value_to_dhall(&x)?;
+                EmptyListLit(x)
+            }
+            _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(format!("{:?}", data)))?,
+        },
+        _ => Err(DecodeError::WrongFormatError(format!("{:?}", data)))?,
+    }))
+}
+
+fn cbor_map_to_dhall_map<'a, T>(
+    map: impl IntoIterator<Item = (&'a cbor::ObjectKey, &'a cbor::Value)>,
+) -> Result<T, DecodeError>
+where
+    T: FromIterator<(Label, DecodedExpr)>,
+{
+    map.into_iter()
+        .map(|(k, v)| -> Result<(_, _), _> {
+            let k = k.as_string().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DecodeError::WrongFormatError("map/key".to_owned())
+            })?;
+            let v = cbor_value_to_dhall(v)?;
+            Ok((Label::from(k.as_ref()), v))
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+}
+
+fn cbor_map_to_dhall_opt_map<'a, T>(
+    map: impl IntoIterator<Item = (&'a cbor::ObjectKey, &'a cbor::Value)>,
+) -> Result<T, DecodeError>
+where
+    T: FromIterator<(Label, Option<DecodedExpr>)>,
+{
+    map.into_iter()
+        .map(|(k, v)| -> Result<(_, _), _> {
+            let k = k.as_string().ok_or_else(|| {
+                DecodeError::WrongFormatError("map/key".to_owned())
+            })?;
+            let v = match v {
+                cbor::Value::Null => None,
+                _ => Some(cbor_value_to_dhall(v)?),
+            };
+            Ok((Label::from(k.as_ref()), v))
+        })
+        .collect::<Result<_, _>>()
+}
+
+enum Serialize<'a, E> {
+    Expr(&'a Expr<E>),
+    CBOR(cbor::Value),
+    RecordMap(&'a DupTreeMap<Label, Expr<E>>),
+    UnionMap(&'a DupTreeMap<Label, Option<Expr<E>>>),
+}
+
+macro_rules! count {
+    (@replace_with $_t:tt $sub:expr) => { $sub };
+    ($($tts:tt)*) => {0usize $(+ count!(@replace_with $tts 1usize))*};
+}
+
+macro_rules! ser_seq {
+    ($ser:expr; $($elt:expr),* $(,)?) => {{
+        use serde::ser::SerializeSeq;
+        let count = count!($($elt)*);
+        let mut ser_seq = $ser.serialize_seq(Some(count))?;
+        $(
+            ser_seq.serialize_element(&$elt)?;
+        )*
+        ser_seq.end()
+    }};
+}
+
+fn serialize_subexpr<S, E>(ser: S, e: &Expr<E>) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+where
+    S: serde::ser::Serializer,
+{
+    use cbor::Value::{String, I64, U64};
+    use crate::syntax::Builtin;
+    use crate::syntax::ExprF::*;
+    use std::iter::once;
+
+    use self::Serialize::{RecordMap, UnionMap};
+    fn expr<E>(x: &Expr<E>) -> self::Serialize<'_, E> {
+        self::Serialize::Expr(x)
+    }
+    let cbor =
+        |v: cbor::Value| -> self::Serialize<'_, E> { self::Serialize::CBOR(v) };
+    let tag = |x: u64| cbor(U64(x));
+    let null = || cbor(cbor::Value::Null);
+    let label = |l: &Label| cbor(cbor::Value::String(l.into()));
+
+    match e.as_ref() {
+        Const(c) => ser.serialize_str(&c.to_string()),
+        Builtin(b) => ser.serialize_str(&b.to_string()),
+        BoolLit(b) => ser.serialize_bool(*b),
+        NaturalLit(n) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(15), U64(*n as u64)),
+        IntegerLit(n) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(16), I64(*n as i64)),
+        DoubleLit(n) => {
+            let n: f64 = (*n).into();
+            ser.serialize_f64(n)
+        }
+        BoolIf(x, y, z) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(14), expr(x), expr(y), expr(z)),
+        Var(V(l, n)) if l == &"_".into() => ser.serialize_u64(*n as u64),
+        Var(V(l, n)) => ser_seq!(ser; label(l), U64(*n as u64)),
+        Lam(l, x, y) if l == &"_".into() => {
+            ser_seq!(ser; tag(1), expr(x), expr(y))
+        }
+        Lam(l, x, y) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(1), label(l), expr(x), expr(y)),
+        Pi(l, x, y) if l == &"_".into() => {
+            ser_seq!(ser; tag(2), expr(x), expr(y))
+        }
+        Pi(l, x, y) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(2), label(l), expr(x), expr(y)),
+        Let(_, _, _, _) => {
+            let (bound_e, bindings) = collect_nested_lets(e);
+            let count = 1 + 3 * bindings.len() + 1;
+
+            use serde::ser::SerializeSeq;
+            let mut ser_seq = ser.serialize_seq(Some(count))?;
+            ser_seq.serialize_element(&tag(25))?;
+            for (l, t, v) in bindings {
+                ser_seq.serialize_element(&label(l))?;
+                match t {
+                    Some(t) => ser_seq.serialize_element(&expr(t))?,
+                    None => ser_seq.serialize_element(&null())?,
+                }
+                ser_seq.serialize_element(&expr(v))?;
+            }
+            ser_seq.serialize_element(&expr(bound_e))?;
+            ser_seq.end()
+        }
+        App(_, _) => {
+            let (f, args) = collect_nested_applications(e);
+            ser.collect_seq(
+                once(tag(0))
+                    .chain(once(expr(f)))
+                    .chain(args.into_iter().rev().map(expr)),
+            )
+        }
+        Annot(x, y) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(26), expr(x), expr(y)),
+        Assert(x) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(19), expr(x)),
+        SomeLit(x) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(5), null(), expr(x)),
+        EmptyListLit(x) => match x.as_ref() {
+            App(f, a) => match f.as_ref() {
+                ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::List) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(4), expr(a)),
+                _ => ser_seq!(ser; tag(28), expr(x)),
+            },
+            _ => ser_seq!(ser; tag(28), expr(x)),
+        },
+        NEListLit(xs) => ser.collect_seq(
+            once(tag(4)).chain(once(null())).chain(xs.iter().map(expr)),
+        ),
+        TextLit(xs) => {
+            use crate::syntax::InterpolatedTextContents::{Expr, Text};
+            ser.collect_seq(once(tag(18)).chain(xs.iter().map(|x| match x {
+                Expr(x) => expr(x),
+                Text(x) => cbor(String(x.clone())),
+            })))
+        }
+        RecordType(map) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(7), RecordMap(map)),
+        RecordLit(map) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(8), RecordMap(map)),
+        UnionType(map) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(11), UnionMap(map)),
+        Field(x, l) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(9), expr(x), label(l)),
+        BinOp(op, x, y) => {
+            use crate::syntax::BinOp::*;
+            let op = match op {
+                BoolOr => 0,
+                BoolAnd => 1,
+                BoolEQ => 2,
+                BoolNE => 3,
+                NaturalPlus => 4,
+                NaturalTimes => 5,
+                TextAppend => 6,
+                ListAppend => 7,
+                RecursiveRecordMerge => 8,
+                RightBiasedRecordMerge => 9,
+                RecursiveRecordTypeMerge => 10,
+                ImportAlt => 11,
+                Equivalence => 12,
+            };
+            ser_seq!(ser; tag(3), U64(op), expr(x), expr(y))
+        }
+        Merge(x, y, None) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(6), expr(x), expr(y)),
+        Merge(x, y, Some(z)) => {
+            ser_seq!(ser; tag(6), expr(x), expr(y), expr(z))
+        }
+        ToMap(x, None) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(27), expr(x)),
+        ToMap(x, Some(y)) => ser_seq!(ser; tag(27), expr(x), expr(y)),
+        Projection(x, ls) => ser.collect_seq(
+            once(tag(10))
+                .chain(once(expr(x)))
+                .chain(ls.iter().map(label)),
+        ),
+        ProjectionByExpr(x, y) => {
+            ser_seq!(ser; tag(10), expr(x), vec![expr(y)])
+        }
+        Import(import) => serialize_import(ser, import),
+        Embed(_) => unimplemented!(
+            "An expression with resolved imports cannot be binary-encoded"
+        ),
+    }
+}
+
+fn serialize_import<S, E>(
+    ser: S,
+    import: &Import<Expr<E>>,
+) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+where
+    S: serde::ser::Serializer,
+{
+    use cbor::Value::{Bytes, Null, U64};
+    use serde::ser::SerializeSeq;
+
+    let count = 4 + match &import.location {
+        ImportLocation::Remote(url) => 3 + url.path.file_path.len(),
+        ImportLocation::Local(_, path) => path.file_path.len(),
+        ImportLocation::Env(_) => 1,
+        ImportLocation::Missing => 0,
+    };
+    let mut ser_seq = ser.serialize_seq(Some(count))?;
+
+    ser_seq.serialize_element(&U64(24))?;
+
+    let hash = match &import.hash {
+        None => Null,
+        Some(Hash::SHA256(h)) => {
+            let mut bytes = vec![18, 32];
+            bytes.extend_from_slice(h);
+            Bytes(bytes)
+        }
+    };
+    ser_seq.serialize_element(&hash)?;
+
+    let mode = match import.mode {
+        ImportMode::Code => 0,
+        ImportMode::RawText => 1,
+        ImportMode::Location => 2,
+    };
+    ser_seq.serialize_element(&U64(mode))?;
+
+    let scheme = match &import.location {
+        ImportLocation::Remote(url) => match url.scheme {
+            Scheme::HTTP => 0,
+            Scheme::HTTPS => 1,
+        },
+        ImportLocation::Local(prefix, _) => match prefix {
+            FilePrefix::Absolute => 2,
+            FilePrefix::Here => 3,
+            FilePrefix::Parent => 4,
+            FilePrefix::Home => 5,
+        },
+        ImportLocation::Env(_) => 6,
+        ImportLocation::Missing => 7,
+    };
+    ser_seq.serialize_element(&U64(scheme))?;
+
+    match &import.location {
+        ImportLocation::Remote(url) => {
+            match &url.headers {
+                None => ser_seq.serialize_element(&Null)?,
+                Some(e) => {
+                    ser_seq.serialize_element(&self::Serialize::Expr(e))?
+                }
+            };
+            ser_seq.serialize_element(&url.authority)?;
+            for p in url.path.file_path.iter() {
+                ser_seq.serialize_element(&p)?;
+            }
+            match &url.query {
+                None => ser_seq.serialize_element(&Null)?,
+                Some(x) => ser_seq.serialize_element(x)?,
+            };
+        }
+        ImportLocation::Local(_, path) => {
+            for p in path.file_path.iter() {
+                ser_seq.serialize_element(&p)?;
+            }
+        }
+        ImportLocation::Env(env) => {
+            ser_seq.serialize_element(env)?;
+        }
+        ImportLocation::Missing => {}
+    }
+
+    ser_seq.end()
+}
+
+impl<'a, E> serde::ser::Serialize for Serialize<'a, E> {
+    fn serialize<S>(&self, ser: S) -> Result<S::Ok, S::Error>
+    where
+        S: serde::ser::Serializer,
+    {
+        match self {
+            Serialize::Expr(e) => serialize_subexpr(ser, e),
+            Serialize::CBOR(v) => v.serialize(ser),
+            Serialize::RecordMap(map) => {
+                ser.collect_map(map.iter().map(|(k, v)| {
+                    (cbor::Value::String(k.into()), Serialize::Expr(v))
+                }))
+            }
+            Serialize::UnionMap(map) => {
+                ser.collect_map(map.iter().map(|(k, v)| {
+                    let v = match v {
+                        Some(x) => Serialize::Expr(x),
+                        None => Serialize::CBOR(cbor::Value::Null),
+                    };
+                    (cbor::Value::String(k.into()), v)
+                }))
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+fn collect_nested_applications<'a, E>(
+    e: &'a Expr<E>,
+) -> (&'a Expr<E>, Vec<&'a Expr<E>>) {
+    fn go<'a, E>(e: &'a Expr<E>, vec: &mut Vec<&'a Expr<E>>) -> &'a Expr<E> {
+        match e.as_ref() {
+            ExprF::App(f, a) => {
+                vec.push(a);
+                go(f, vec)
+            }
+            _ => e,
+        }
+    }
+    let mut vec = vec![];
+    let e = go(e, &mut vec);
+    (e, vec)
+}
+
+type LetBinding<'a, E> = (&'a Label, &'a Option<Expr<E>>, &'a Expr<E>);
+
+fn collect_nested_lets<'a, E>(
+    e: &'a Expr<E>,
+) -> (&'a Expr<E>, Vec<LetBinding<'a, E>>) {
+    fn go<'a, E>(
+        e: &'a Expr<E>,
+        vec: &mut Vec<LetBinding<'a, E>>,
+    ) -> &'a Expr<E> {
+        match e.as_ref() {
+            ExprF::Let(l, t, v, e) => {
+                vec.push((l, t, v));
+                go(e, vec)
+            }
+            _ => e,
+        }
+    }
+    let mut vec = vec![];
+    let e = go(e, &mut vec);
+    (e, vec)
+}
diff --git a/dhall/src/semantics/phase/mod.rs b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/mod.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..918c4d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/mod.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,254 @@
+use std::fmt::Display;
+use std::path::Path;
+
+use crate::syntax::{Builtin, Const, Expr};
+
+use crate::core::value::{ToExprOptions, Value};
+use crate::core::valuef::ValueF;
+use crate::core::var::{AlphaVar, Shift, Subst};
+use crate::error::{EncodeError, Error, ImportError, TypeError};
+
+use resolve::ImportRoot;
+
+pub(crate) mod binary;
+pub(crate) mod normalize;
+pub(crate) mod parse;
+pub(crate) mod resolve;
+pub(crate) mod typecheck;
+
+pub type ParsedExpr = Expr<Normalized>;
+pub type DecodedExpr = Expr<Normalized>;
+pub type ResolvedExpr = Expr<Normalized>;
+pub type NormalizedExpr = Expr<Normalized>;
+
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Parsed(ParsedExpr, ImportRoot);
+
+/// An expression where all imports have been resolved
+///
+/// Invariant: there must be no `Import` nodes or `ImportAlt` operations left.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Resolved(ResolvedExpr);
+
+/// A typed expression
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Typed(Value);
+
+/// A normalized expression.
+///
+/// Invariant: the contained Typed expression must be in normal form,
+#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
+pub struct Normalized(Typed);
+
+impl Parsed {
+    pub fn parse_file(f: &Path) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+        parse::parse_file(f)
+    }
+    pub fn parse_str(s: &str) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+        parse::parse_str(s)
+    }
+    pub fn parse_binary_file(f: &Path) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+        parse::parse_binary_file(f)
+    }
+    pub fn parse_binary(data: &[u8]) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+        parse::parse_binary(data)
+    }
+
+    pub fn resolve(self) -> Result<Resolved, ImportError> {
+        resolve::resolve(self)
+    }
+    pub fn skip_resolve(self) -> Result<Resolved, ImportError> {
+        resolve::skip_resolve_expr(self)
+    }
+
+    pub fn encode(&self) -> Result<Vec<u8>, EncodeError> {
+        crate::phase::binary::encode(&self.0)
+    }
+}
+
+impl Resolved {
+    pub fn typecheck(self) -> Result<Typed, TypeError> {
+        Ok(typecheck::typecheck(self.0)?.into_typed())
+    }
+    pub fn typecheck_with(self, ty: &Typed) -> Result<Typed, TypeError> {
+        Ok(typecheck::typecheck_with(self.0, ty.normalize_to_expr())?
+            .into_typed())
+    }
+}
+
+impl Typed {
+    /// Reduce an expression to its normal form, performing beta reduction
+    ///
+    /// `normalize` does not type-check the expression.  You may want to type-check
+    /// expressions before normalizing them since normalization can convert an
+    /// ill-typed expression into a well-typed expression.
+    ///
+    /// However, `normalize` will not fail if the expression is ill-typed and will
+    /// leave ill-typed sub-expressions unevaluated.
+    pub fn normalize(mut self) -> Normalized {
+        self.normalize_mut();
+        Normalized(self)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn from_const(c: Const) -> Self {
+        Typed(Value::from_const(c))
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn from_valuef_and_type(v: ValueF, t: Typed) -> Self {
+        Typed(Value::from_valuef_and_type(v, t.into_value()))
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn from_value(th: Value) -> Self {
+        Typed(th)
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn const_type() -> Self {
+        Typed::from_const(Const::Type)
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn to_expr(&self) -> NormalizedExpr {
+        self.0.to_expr(ToExprOptions {
+            alpha: false,
+            normalize: false,
+        })
+    }
+    pub fn normalize_to_expr(&self) -> NormalizedExpr {
+        self.0.to_expr(ToExprOptions {
+            alpha: false,
+            normalize: true,
+        })
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn normalize_to_expr_alpha(&self) -> NormalizedExpr {
+        self.0.to_expr(ToExprOptions {
+            alpha: true,
+            normalize: true,
+        })
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn to_value(&self) -> Value {
+        self.0.clone()
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn into_value(self) -> Value {
+        self.0
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn normalize_mut(&mut self) {
+        self.0.normalize_mut()
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn get_type(&self) -> Result<Typed, TypeError> {
+        Ok(self.0.get_type()?.into_typed())
+    }
+
+    pub fn make_builtin_type(b: Builtin) -> Self {
+        Typed::from_value(Value::from_builtin(b))
+    }
+    pub fn make_optional_type(t: Typed) -> Self {
+        Typed::from_value(
+            Value::from_builtin(Builtin::Optional).app(t.to_value()),
+        )
+    }
+    pub fn make_list_type(t: Typed) -> Self {
+        Typed::from_value(Value::from_builtin(Builtin::List).app(t.to_value()))
+    }
+    pub fn make_record_type(
+        kts: impl Iterator<Item = (String, Typed)>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Typed::from_valuef_and_type(
+            ValueF::RecordType(
+                kts.map(|(k, t)| (k.into(), t.into_value())).collect(),
+            ),
+            Typed::const_type(),
+        )
+    }
+    pub fn make_union_type(
+        kts: impl Iterator<Item = (String, Option<Typed>)>,
+    ) -> Self {
+        Typed::from_valuef_and_type(
+            ValueF::UnionType(
+                kts.map(|(k, t)| (k.into(), t.map(|t| t.into_value())))
+                    .collect(),
+            ),
+            Typed::const_type(),
+        )
+    }
+}
+
+impl Normalized {
+    pub fn encode(&self) -> Result<Vec<u8>, EncodeError> {
+        crate::phase::binary::encode(&self.to_expr())
+    }
+
+    pub(crate) fn to_expr(&self) -> NormalizedExpr {
+        self.0.normalize_to_expr()
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn to_expr_alpha(&self) -> NormalizedExpr {
+        self.0.normalize_to_expr_alpha()
+    }
+    pub(crate) fn into_typed(self) -> Typed {
+        self.0
+    }
+}
+
+impl Shift for Typed {
+    fn shift(&self, delta: isize, var: &AlphaVar) -> Option<Self> {
+        Some(Typed(self.0.shift(delta, var)?))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Shift for Normalized {
+    fn shift(&self, delta: isize, var: &AlphaVar) -> Option<Self> {
+        Some(Normalized(self.0.shift(delta, var)?))
+    }
+}
+
+impl Subst<Value> for Typed {
+    fn subst_shift(&self, var: &AlphaVar, val: &Value) -> Self {
+        Typed(self.0.subst_shift(var, val))
+    }
+}
+
+macro_rules! derive_traits_for_wrapper_struct {
+    ($ty:ident) => {
+        impl std::cmp::PartialEq for $ty {
+            fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+                self.0 == other.0
+            }
+        }
+
+        impl std::cmp::Eq for $ty {}
+
+        impl std::fmt::Display for $ty {
+            fn fmt(
+                &self,
+                f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter,
+            ) -> Result<(), std::fmt::Error> {
+                self.0.fmt(f)
+            }
+        }
+    };
+}
+
+derive_traits_for_wrapper_struct!(Parsed);
+derive_traits_for_wrapper_struct!(Resolved);
+derive_traits_for_wrapper_struct!(Normalized);
+
+impl std::hash::Hash for Normalized {
+    fn hash<H>(&self, state: &mut H)
+    where
+        H: std::hash::Hasher,
+    {
+        if let Ok(vec) = self.encode() {
+            vec.hash(state)
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+impl Eq for Typed {}
+impl PartialEq for Typed {
+    fn eq(&self, other: &Self) -> bool {
+        self.0 == other.0
+    }
+}
+
+impl Display for Typed {
+    fn fmt(&self, f: &mut std::fmt::Formatter) -> Result<(), std::fmt::Error> {
+        self.to_expr().fmt(f)
+    }
+}
diff --git a/dhall/src/semantics/phase/normalize.rs b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/normalize.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3ed53f4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/normalize.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,794 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use crate::syntax::Const::Type;
+use crate::syntax::{
+    BinOp, Builtin, ExprF, InterpolatedText, InterpolatedTextContents, Label,
+    NaiveDouble,
+};
+
+use crate::core::value::Value;
+use crate::core::valuef::ValueF;
+use crate::core::var::{AlphaLabel, Shift, Subst};
+use crate::phase::Normalized;
+
+// Ad-hoc macro to help construct closures
+macro_rules! make_closure {
+    (#$var:ident) => { $var.clone() };
+    (var($var:ident, $n:expr, $($ty:tt)*)) => {{
+        let var = crate::core::var::AlphaVar::from_var_and_alpha(
+            Label::from(stringify!($var)).into(),
+            $n
+        );
+        ValueF::Var(var)
+            .into_value_with_type(make_closure!($($ty)*))
+    }};
+    // Warning: assumes that $ty, as a dhall value, has type `Type`
+    (λ($var:ident : $($ty:tt)*) -> $($body:tt)*) => {{
+        let var: AlphaLabel = Label::from(stringify!($var)).into();
+        let ty = make_closure!($($ty)*);
+        let body = make_closure!($($body)*);
+        let body_ty = body.get_type_not_sort();
+        let lam_ty = ValueF::Pi(var.clone(), ty.clone(), body_ty)
+            .into_value_with_type(Value::from_const(Type));
+        ValueF::Lam(var, ty, body).into_value_with_type(lam_ty)
+    }};
+    (Natural) => {
+        Value::from_builtin(Builtin::Natural)
+    };
+    (List $($rest:tt)*) => {
+        Value::from_builtin(Builtin::List)
+            .app(make_closure!($($rest)*))
+    };
+    (Some($($rest:tt)*)) => {{
+        let v = make_closure!($($rest)*);
+        let v_type = v.get_type_not_sort();
+        let opt_v_type = Value::from_builtin(Builtin::Optional).app(v_type);
+        ValueF::NEOptionalLit(v).into_value_with_type(opt_v_type)
+    }};
+    (1 + $($rest:tt)*) => {
+        ValueF::PartialExpr(ExprF::BinOp(
+            crate::syntax::BinOp::NaturalPlus,
+            make_closure!($($rest)*),
+            Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                ValueF::NaturalLit(1),
+                make_closure!(Natural)
+            ),
+        )).into_value_with_type(
+            make_closure!(Natural)
+        )
+    };
+    ([ $($head:tt)* ] # $($tail:tt)*) => {{
+        let head = make_closure!($($head)*);
+        let tail = make_closure!($($tail)*);
+        let list_type = tail.get_type_not_sort();
+        ValueF::PartialExpr(ExprF::BinOp(
+            crate::syntax::BinOp::ListAppend,
+            ValueF::NEListLit(vec![head])
+                .into_value_with_type(list_type.clone()),
+            tail,
+        )).into_value_with_type(list_type)
+    }};
+}
+
+#[allow(clippy::cognitive_complexity)]
+pub(crate) fn apply_builtin(
+    b: Builtin,
+    args: Vec<Value>,
+    ty: &Value,
+) -> ValueF {
+    use crate::syntax::Builtin::*;
+    use ValueF::*;
+
+    // Small helper enum
+    enum Ret<'a> {
+        ValueF(ValueF),
+        Value(Value),
+        // For applications that can return a function, it's important to keep the remaining
+        // arguments to apply them to the resulting function.
+        ValueWithRemainingArgs(&'a [Value], Value),
+        DoneAsIs,
+    }
+
+    let ret = match (b, args.as_slice()) {
+        (OptionalNone, [t]) => Ret::ValueF(EmptyOptionalLit(t.clone())),
+        (NaturalIsZero, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            NaturalLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(*n == 0)),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (NaturalEven, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            NaturalLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(*n % 2 == 0)),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (NaturalOdd, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            NaturalLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(*n % 2 != 0)),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (NaturalToInteger, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            NaturalLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(IntegerLit(*n as isize)),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (NaturalShow, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            NaturalLit(n) => {
+                Ret::ValueF(TextLit(vec![InterpolatedTextContents::Text(
+                    n.to_string(),
+                )]))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (NaturalSubtract, [a, b]) => match (&*a.as_whnf(), &*b.as_whnf()) {
+            (NaturalLit(a), NaturalLit(b)) => {
+                Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(if b > a { b - a } else { 0 }))
+            }
+            (NaturalLit(0), _) => Ret::Value(b.clone()),
+            (_, NaturalLit(0)) => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(0)),
+            _ if a == b => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(0)),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (IntegerShow, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            IntegerLit(n) => {
+                let s = if *n < 0 {
+                    n.to_string()
+                } else {
+                    format!("+{}", n)
+                };
+                Ret::ValueF(TextLit(vec![InterpolatedTextContents::Text(s)]))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (IntegerToDouble, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            IntegerLit(n) => {
+                Ret::ValueF(DoubleLit(NaiveDouble::from(*n as f64)))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (DoubleShow, [n]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            DoubleLit(n) => {
+                Ret::ValueF(TextLit(vec![InterpolatedTextContents::Text(
+                    n.to_string(),
+                )]))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (TextShow, [v]) => match &*v.as_whnf() {
+            TextLit(elts) => {
+                match elts.as_slice() {
+                    // Empty string literal.
+                    [] => {
+                        // Printing InterpolatedText takes care of all the escaping
+                        let txt: InterpolatedText<Normalized> =
+                            std::iter::empty().collect();
+                        let s = txt.to_string();
+                        Ret::ValueF(TextLit(vec![
+                            InterpolatedTextContents::Text(s),
+                        ]))
+                    }
+                    // If there are no interpolations (invariants ensure that when there are no
+                    // interpolations, there is a single Text item) in the literal.
+                    [InterpolatedTextContents::Text(s)] => {
+                        // Printing InterpolatedText takes care of all the escaping
+                        let txt: InterpolatedText<Normalized> =
+                            std::iter::once(InterpolatedTextContents::Text(
+                                s.clone(),
+                            ))
+                            .collect();
+                        let s = txt.to_string();
+                        Ret::ValueF(TextLit(vec![
+                            InterpolatedTextContents::Text(s),
+                        ]))
+                    }
+                    _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+                }
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (ListLength, [_, l]) => match &*l.as_whnf() {
+            EmptyListLit(_) => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(0)),
+            NEListLit(xs) => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(xs.len())),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (ListHead, [_, l]) => match &*l.as_whnf() {
+            EmptyListLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(EmptyOptionalLit(n.clone())),
+            NEListLit(xs) => {
+                Ret::ValueF(NEOptionalLit(xs.iter().next().unwrap().clone()))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (ListLast, [_, l]) => match &*l.as_whnf() {
+            EmptyListLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(EmptyOptionalLit(n.clone())),
+            NEListLit(xs) => Ret::ValueF(NEOptionalLit(
+                xs.iter().rev().next().unwrap().clone(),
+            )),
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (ListReverse, [_, l]) => match &*l.as_whnf() {
+            EmptyListLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(EmptyListLit(n.clone())),
+            NEListLit(xs) => {
+                Ret::ValueF(NEListLit(xs.iter().rev().cloned().collect()))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (ListIndexed, [_, l]) => {
+            let l_whnf = l.as_whnf();
+            match &*l_whnf {
+                EmptyListLit(_) | NEListLit(_) => {
+                    // Extract the type of the list elements
+                    let t = match &*l_whnf {
+                        EmptyListLit(t) => t.clone(),
+                        NEListLit(xs) => xs[0].get_type_not_sort(),
+                        _ => unreachable!(),
+                    };
+
+                    // Construct the returned record type: { index: Natural, value: t }
+                    let mut kts = HashMap::new();
+                    kts.insert("index".into(), Value::from_builtin(Natural));
+                    kts.insert("value".into(), t.clone());
+                    let t = Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                        RecordType(kts),
+                        Value::from_const(Type),
+                    );
+
+                    // Construct the new list, with added indices
+                    let list = match &*l_whnf {
+                        EmptyListLit(_) => EmptyListLit(t),
+                        NEListLit(xs) => NEListLit(
+                            xs.iter()
+                                .enumerate()
+                                .map(|(i, e)| {
+                                    let mut kvs = HashMap::new();
+                                    kvs.insert(
+                                        "index".into(),
+                                        Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                                            NaturalLit(i),
+                                            Value::from_builtin(
+                                                Builtin::Natural,
+                                            ),
+                                        ),
+                                    );
+                                    kvs.insert("value".into(), e.clone());
+                                    Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                                        RecordLit(kvs),
+                                        t.clone(),
+                                    )
+                                })
+                                .collect(),
+                        ),
+                        _ => unreachable!(),
+                    };
+                    Ret::ValueF(list)
+                }
+                _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+            }
+        }
+        (ListBuild, [t, f]) => match &*f.as_whnf() {
+            // fold/build fusion
+            ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(ListFold, args) => {
+                if args.len() >= 2 {
+                    Ret::Value(args[1].clone())
+                } else {
+                    // Do we really need to handle this case ?
+                    unimplemented!()
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let list_t = Value::from_builtin(List).app(t.clone());
+                Ret::Value(
+                    f.app(list_t.clone())
+                        .app({
+                            // Move `t` under new variables
+                            let t1 = t.under_binder(Label::from("x"));
+                            let t2 = t1.under_binder(Label::from("xs"));
+                            make_closure!(
+                                λ(x : #t) ->
+                                λ(xs : List #t1) ->
+                                [ var(x, 1, #t2) ] # var(xs, 0, List #t2)
+                            )
+                        })
+                        .app(
+                            EmptyListLit(t.clone())
+                                .into_value_with_type(list_t),
+                        ),
+                )
+            }
+        },
+        (ListFold, [_, l, _, cons, nil, r @ ..]) => match &*l.as_whnf() {
+            EmptyListLit(_) => Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(r, nil.clone()),
+            NEListLit(xs) => {
+                let mut v = nil.clone();
+                for x in xs.iter().cloned().rev() {
+                    v = cons.app(x).app(v);
+                }
+                Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(r, v)
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (OptionalBuild, [t, f]) => match &*f.as_whnf() {
+            // fold/build fusion
+            ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(OptionalFold, args) => {
+                if args.len() >= 2 {
+                    Ret::Value(args[1].clone())
+                } else {
+                    // Do we really need to handle this case ?
+                    unimplemented!()
+                }
+            }
+            _ => {
+                let optional_t = Value::from_builtin(Optional).app(t.clone());
+                Ret::Value(
+                    f.app(optional_t.clone())
+                        .app({
+                            let t1 = t.under_binder(Label::from("x"));
+                            make_closure!(λ(x: #t) -> Some(var(x, 0, #t1)))
+                        })
+                        .app(
+                            EmptyOptionalLit(t.clone())
+                                .into_value_with_type(optional_t),
+                        ),
+                )
+            }
+        },
+        (OptionalFold, [_, v, _, just, nothing, r @ ..]) => match &*v.as_whnf()
+        {
+            EmptyOptionalLit(_) => {
+                Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(r, nothing.clone())
+            }
+            NEOptionalLit(x) => {
+                Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(r, just.app(x.clone()))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        (NaturalBuild, [f]) => match &*f.as_whnf() {
+            // fold/build fusion
+            ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(NaturalFold, args) => {
+                if !args.is_empty() {
+                    Ret::Value(args[0].clone())
+                } else {
+                    // Do we really need to handle this case ?
+                    unimplemented!()
+                }
+            }
+            _ => Ret::Value(
+                f.app(Value::from_builtin(Natural))
+                    .app(make_closure!(
+                        λ(x : Natural) -> 1 + var(x, 0, Natural)
+                    ))
+                    .app(
+                        NaturalLit(0)
+                            .into_value_with_type(Value::from_builtin(Natural)),
+                    ),
+            ),
+        },
+        (NaturalFold, [n, t, succ, zero, r @ ..]) => match &*n.as_whnf() {
+            NaturalLit(0) => Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(r, zero.clone()),
+            NaturalLit(n) => {
+                let fold = Value::from_builtin(NaturalFold)
+                    .app(
+                        NaturalLit(n - 1)
+                            .into_value_with_type(Value::from_builtin(Natural)),
+                    )
+                    .app(t.clone())
+                    .app(succ.clone())
+                    .app(zero.clone());
+                Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(r, succ.app(fold))
+            }
+            _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+        },
+        _ => Ret::DoneAsIs,
+    };
+    match ret {
+        Ret::ValueF(v) => v,
+        Ret::Value(v) => v.to_whnf_check_type(ty),
+        Ret::ValueWithRemainingArgs(unconsumed_args, mut v) => {
+            let n_consumed_args = args.len() - unconsumed_args.len();
+            for x in args.into_iter().skip(n_consumed_args) {
+                v = v.app(x);
+            }
+            v.to_whnf_check_type(ty)
+        }
+        Ret::DoneAsIs => AppliedBuiltin(b, args),
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn apply_any(f: Value, a: Value, ty: &Value) -> ValueF {
+    let f_borrow = f.as_whnf();
+    match &*f_borrow {
+        ValueF::Lam(x, _, e) => {
+            e.subst_shift(&x.into(), &a).to_whnf_check_type(ty)
+        }
+        ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(b, args) => {
+            use std::iter::once;
+            let args = args.iter().cloned().chain(once(a.clone())).collect();
+            apply_builtin(*b, args, ty)
+        }
+        ValueF::UnionConstructor(l, kts) => {
+            ValueF::UnionLit(l.clone(), a, kts.clone())
+        }
+        _ => {
+            drop(f_borrow);
+            ValueF::PartialExpr(ExprF::App(f, a))
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn squash_textlit(
+    elts: impl Iterator<Item = InterpolatedTextContents<Value>>,
+) -> Vec<InterpolatedTextContents<Value>> {
+    use std::mem::replace;
+    use InterpolatedTextContents::{Expr, Text};
+
+    fn inner(
+        elts: impl Iterator<Item = InterpolatedTextContents<Value>>,
+        crnt_str: &mut String,
+        ret: &mut Vec<InterpolatedTextContents<Value>>,
+    ) {
+        for contents in elts {
+            match contents {
+                Text(s) => crnt_str.push_str(&s),
+                Expr(e) => {
+                    let e_borrow = e.as_whnf();
+                    match &*e_borrow {
+                        ValueF::TextLit(elts2) => {
+                            inner(elts2.iter().cloned(), crnt_str, ret)
+                        }
+                        _ => {
+                            drop(e_borrow);
+                            if !crnt_str.is_empty() {
+                                ret.push(Text(replace(crnt_str, String::new())))
+                            }
+                            ret.push(Expr(e.clone()))
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
+    let mut crnt_str = String::new();
+    let mut ret = Vec::new();
+    inner(elts, &mut crnt_str, &mut ret);
+    if !crnt_str.is_empty() {
+        ret.push(Text(replace(&mut crnt_str, String::new())))
+    }
+    ret
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn merge_maps<K, V, F, Err>(
+    map1: &HashMap<K, V>,
+    map2: &HashMap<K, V>,
+    mut f: F,
+) -> Result<HashMap<K, V>, Err>
+where
+    F: FnMut(&K, &V, &V) -> Result<V, Err>,
+    K: std::hash::Hash + Eq + Clone,
+    V: Clone,
+{
+    let mut kvs = HashMap::new();
+    for (x, v2) in map2 {
+        let newv = if let Some(v1) = map1.get(x) {
+            f(x, v1, v2)?
+        } else {
+            v2.clone()
+        };
+        kvs.insert(x.clone(), newv);
+    }
+    for (x, v1) in map1 {
+        // Insert only if key not already present
+        kvs.entry(x.clone()).or_insert_with(|| v1.clone());
+    }
+    Ok(kvs)
+}
+
+// Small helper enum to avoid repetition
+enum Ret<'a> {
+    ValueF(ValueF),
+    Value(Value),
+    ValueRef(&'a Value),
+    Expr(ExprF<Value, Normalized>),
+}
+
+fn apply_binop<'a>(
+    o: BinOp,
+    x: &'a Value,
+    y: &'a Value,
+    ty: &Value,
+) -> Option<Ret<'a>> {
+    use BinOp::{
+        BoolAnd, BoolEQ, BoolNE, BoolOr, Equivalence, ListAppend, NaturalPlus,
+        NaturalTimes, RecursiveRecordMerge, RecursiveRecordTypeMerge,
+        RightBiasedRecordMerge, TextAppend,
+    };
+    use ValueF::{
+        BoolLit, EmptyListLit, NEListLit, NaturalLit, RecordLit, RecordType,
+        TextLit,
+    };
+    let x_borrow = x.as_whnf();
+    let y_borrow = y.as_whnf();
+    Some(match (o, &*x_borrow, &*y_borrow) {
+        (BoolAnd, BoolLit(true), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (BoolAnd, _, BoolLit(true)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (BoolAnd, BoolLit(false), _) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(false)),
+        (BoolAnd, _, BoolLit(false)) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(false)),
+        (BoolAnd, _, _) if x == y => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (BoolOr, BoolLit(true), _) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(true)),
+        (BoolOr, _, BoolLit(true)) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(true)),
+        (BoolOr, BoolLit(false), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (BoolOr, _, BoolLit(false)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (BoolOr, _, _) if x == y => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (BoolEQ, BoolLit(true), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (BoolEQ, _, BoolLit(true)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (BoolEQ, BoolLit(x), BoolLit(y)) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(x == y)),
+        (BoolEQ, _, _) if x == y => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(true)),
+        (BoolNE, BoolLit(false), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (BoolNE, _, BoolLit(false)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (BoolNE, BoolLit(x), BoolLit(y)) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(x != y)),
+        (BoolNE, _, _) if x == y => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(false)),
+
+        (NaturalPlus, NaturalLit(0), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (NaturalPlus, _, NaturalLit(0)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (NaturalPlus, NaturalLit(x), NaturalLit(y)) => {
+            Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(x + y))
+        }
+        (NaturalTimes, NaturalLit(0), _) => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(0)),
+        (NaturalTimes, _, NaturalLit(0)) => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(0)),
+        (NaturalTimes, NaturalLit(1), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (NaturalTimes, _, NaturalLit(1)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (NaturalTimes, NaturalLit(x), NaturalLit(y)) => {
+            Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(x * y))
+        }
+
+        (ListAppend, EmptyListLit(_), _) => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (ListAppend, _, EmptyListLit(_)) => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (ListAppend, NEListLit(xs), NEListLit(ys)) => Ret::ValueF(NEListLit(
+            xs.iter().chain(ys.iter()).cloned().collect(),
+        )),
+
+        (TextAppend, TextLit(x), _) if x.is_empty() => Ret::ValueRef(y),
+        (TextAppend, _, TextLit(y)) if y.is_empty() => Ret::ValueRef(x),
+        (TextAppend, TextLit(x), TextLit(y)) => Ret::ValueF(TextLit(
+            squash_textlit(x.iter().chain(y.iter()).cloned()),
+        )),
+        (TextAppend, TextLit(x), _) => {
+            use std::iter::once;
+            let y = InterpolatedTextContents::Expr(y.clone());
+            Ret::ValueF(TextLit(squash_textlit(
+                x.iter().cloned().chain(once(y)),
+            )))
+        }
+        (TextAppend, _, TextLit(y)) => {
+            use std::iter::once;
+            let x = InterpolatedTextContents::Expr(x.clone());
+            Ret::ValueF(TextLit(squash_textlit(
+                once(x).chain(y.iter().cloned()),
+            )))
+        }
+
+        (RightBiasedRecordMerge, _, RecordLit(kvs)) if kvs.is_empty() => {
+            Ret::ValueRef(x)
+        }
+        (RightBiasedRecordMerge, RecordLit(kvs), _) if kvs.is_empty() => {
+            Ret::ValueRef(y)
+        }
+        (RightBiasedRecordMerge, RecordLit(kvs1), RecordLit(kvs2)) => {
+            let mut kvs = kvs2.clone();
+            for (x, v) in kvs1 {
+                // Insert only if key not already present
+                kvs.entry(x.clone()).or_insert_with(|| v.clone());
+            }
+            Ret::ValueF(RecordLit(kvs))
+        }
+
+        (RecursiveRecordMerge, _, RecordLit(kvs)) if kvs.is_empty() => {
+            Ret::ValueRef(x)
+        }
+        (RecursiveRecordMerge, RecordLit(kvs), _) if kvs.is_empty() => {
+            Ret::ValueRef(y)
+        }
+        (RecursiveRecordMerge, RecordLit(kvs1), RecordLit(kvs2)) => {
+            let ty_borrow = ty.as_whnf();
+            let kts = match &*ty_borrow {
+                RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => unreachable!("Internal type error"),
+            };
+            let kvs = merge_maps::<_, _, _, !>(kvs1, kvs2, |k, v1, v2| {
+                Ok(Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                    ValueF::PartialExpr(ExprF::BinOp(
+                        RecursiveRecordMerge,
+                        v1.clone(),
+                        v2.clone(),
+                    )),
+                    kts.get(k).expect("Internal type error").clone(),
+                ))
+            })?;
+            Ret::ValueF(RecordLit(kvs))
+        }
+
+        (RecursiveRecordTypeMerge, _, _) | (Equivalence, _, _) => {
+            unreachable!("This case should have been handled in typecheck")
+        }
+
+        _ => return None,
+    })
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn normalize_one_layer(
+    expr: ExprF<Value, Normalized>,
+    ty: &Value,
+) -> ValueF {
+    use ValueF::{
+        AppliedBuiltin, BoolLit, DoubleLit, EmptyListLit, IntegerLit,
+        NEListLit, NEOptionalLit, NaturalLit, RecordLit, TextLit,
+        UnionConstructor, UnionLit, UnionType,
+    };
+
+    let ret = match expr {
+        ExprF::Import(_) => unreachable!(
+            "There should remain no imports in a resolved expression"
+        ),
+        // Those cases have already been completely handled in the typechecking phase (using
+        // `RetWhole`), so they won't appear here.
+        ExprF::Lam(_, _, _)
+        | ExprF::Pi(_, _, _)
+        | ExprF::Let(_, _, _, _)
+        | ExprF::Embed(_)
+        | ExprF::Const(_)
+        | ExprF::Builtin(_)
+        | ExprF::Var(_)
+        | ExprF::Annot(_, _)
+        | ExprF::RecordType(_)
+        | ExprF::UnionType(_) => {
+            unreachable!("This case should have been handled in typecheck")
+        }
+        ExprF::Assert(_) => Ret::Expr(expr),
+        ExprF::App(v, a) => Ret::Value(v.app(a)),
+        ExprF::BoolLit(b) => Ret::ValueF(BoolLit(b)),
+        ExprF::NaturalLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(NaturalLit(n)),
+        ExprF::IntegerLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(IntegerLit(n)),
+        ExprF::DoubleLit(n) => Ret::ValueF(DoubleLit(n)),
+        ExprF::SomeLit(e) => Ret::ValueF(NEOptionalLit(e)),
+        ExprF::EmptyListLit(ref t) => {
+            // Check if the type is of the form `List x`
+            let t_borrow = t.as_whnf();
+            match &*t_borrow {
+                AppliedBuiltin(Builtin::List, args) if args.len() == 1 => {
+                    Ret::ValueF(EmptyListLit(args[0].clone()))
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    drop(t_borrow);
+                    Ret::Expr(expr)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        ExprF::NEListLit(elts) => {
+            Ret::ValueF(NEListLit(elts.into_iter().collect()))
+        }
+        ExprF::RecordLit(kvs) => {
+            Ret::ValueF(RecordLit(kvs.into_iter().collect()))
+        }
+        ExprF::TextLit(elts) => {
+            use InterpolatedTextContents::Expr;
+            let elts: Vec<_> = squash_textlit(elts.into_iter());
+            // Simplify bare interpolation
+            if let [Expr(th)] = elts.as_slice() {
+                Ret::Value(th.clone())
+            } else {
+                Ret::ValueF(TextLit(elts))
+            }
+        }
+        ExprF::BoolIf(ref b, ref e1, ref e2) => {
+            let b_borrow = b.as_whnf();
+            match &*b_borrow {
+                BoolLit(true) => Ret::ValueRef(e1),
+                BoolLit(false) => Ret::ValueRef(e2),
+                _ => {
+                    let e1_borrow = e1.as_whnf();
+                    let e2_borrow = e2.as_whnf();
+                    match (&*e1_borrow, &*e2_borrow) {
+                        // Simplify `if b then True else False`
+                        (BoolLit(true), BoolLit(false)) => Ret::ValueRef(b),
+                        _ if e1 == e2 => Ret::ValueRef(e1),
+                        _ => {
+                            drop(b_borrow);
+                            drop(e1_borrow);
+                            drop(e2_borrow);
+                            Ret::Expr(expr)
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        ExprF::BinOp(o, ref x, ref y) => match apply_binop(o, x, y, ty) {
+            Some(ret) => ret,
+            None => Ret::Expr(expr),
+        },
+
+        ExprF::Projection(_, ref ls) if ls.is_empty() => {
+            Ret::ValueF(RecordLit(HashMap::new()))
+        }
+        ExprF::Projection(ref v, ref ls) => {
+            let v_borrow = v.as_whnf();
+            match &*v_borrow {
+                RecordLit(kvs) => Ret::ValueF(RecordLit(
+                    ls.iter()
+                        .filter_map(|l| {
+                            kvs.get(l).map(|x| (l.clone(), x.clone()))
+                        })
+                        .collect(),
+                )),
+                _ => {
+                    drop(v_borrow);
+                    Ret::Expr(expr)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        ExprF::Field(ref v, ref l) => {
+            let v_borrow = v.as_whnf();
+            match &*v_borrow {
+                RecordLit(kvs) => match kvs.get(l) {
+                    Some(r) => Ret::Value(r.clone()),
+                    None => {
+                        drop(v_borrow);
+                        Ret::Expr(expr)
+                    }
+                },
+                UnionType(kts) => {
+                    Ret::ValueF(UnionConstructor(l.clone(), kts.clone()))
+                }
+                _ => {
+                    drop(v_borrow);
+                    Ret::Expr(expr)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        ExprF::ProjectionByExpr(_, _) => {
+            unimplemented!("selection by expression")
+        }
+
+        ExprF::Merge(ref handlers, ref variant, _) => {
+            let handlers_borrow = handlers.as_whnf();
+            let variant_borrow = variant.as_whnf();
+            match (&*handlers_borrow, &*variant_borrow) {
+                (RecordLit(kvs), UnionConstructor(l, _)) => match kvs.get(l) {
+                    Some(h) => Ret::Value(h.clone()),
+                    None => {
+                        drop(handlers_borrow);
+                        drop(variant_borrow);
+                        Ret::Expr(expr)
+                    }
+                },
+                (RecordLit(kvs), UnionLit(l, v, _)) => match kvs.get(l) {
+                    Some(h) => Ret::Value(h.app(v.clone())),
+                    None => {
+                        drop(handlers_borrow);
+                        drop(variant_borrow);
+                        Ret::Expr(expr)
+                    }
+                },
+                _ => {
+                    drop(handlers_borrow);
+                    drop(variant_borrow);
+                    Ret::Expr(expr)
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        ExprF::ToMap(_, _) => unimplemented!("toMap"),
+    };
+
+    match ret {
+        Ret::ValueF(v) => v,
+        Ret::Value(v) => v.to_whnf_check_type(ty),
+        Ret::ValueRef(v) => v.to_whnf_check_type(ty),
+        Ret::Expr(expr) => ValueF::PartialExpr(expr),
+    }
+}
+
+/// Normalize a ValueF into WHNF
+pub(crate) fn normalize_whnf(v: ValueF, ty: &Value) -> ValueF {
+    match v {
+        ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(b, args) => apply_builtin(b, args, ty),
+        ValueF::PartialExpr(e) => normalize_one_layer(e, ty),
+        ValueF::TextLit(elts) => {
+            ValueF::TextLit(squash_textlit(elts.into_iter()))
+        }
+        // All other cases are already in WHNF
+        v => v,
+    }
+}
diff --git a/dhall/src/semantics/phase/parse.rs b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/parse.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e277e54
--- /dev/null
+++ b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/parse.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+use std::fs::File;
+use std::io::Read;
+use std::path::Path;
+
+use crate::syntax::parse_expr;
+
+use crate::error::Error;
+use crate::phase::resolve::ImportRoot;
+use crate::phase::Parsed;
+
+pub(crate) fn parse_file(f: &Path) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+    let mut buffer = String::new();
+    File::open(f)?.read_to_string(&mut buffer)?;
+    let expr = parse_expr(&*buffer)?;
+    let root = ImportRoot::LocalDir(f.parent().unwrap().to_owned());
+    Ok(Parsed(expr, root))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn parse_str(s: &str) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+    let expr = parse_expr(s)?;
+    let root = ImportRoot::LocalDir(std::env::current_dir()?);
+    Ok(Parsed(expr, root))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn parse_binary(data: &[u8]) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+    let expr = crate::phase::binary::decode(data)?;
+    let root = ImportRoot::LocalDir(std::env::current_dir()?);
+    Ok(Parsed(expr, root))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn parse_binary_file(f: &Path) -> Result<Parsed, Error> {
+    let mut buffer = Vec::new();
+    File::open(f)?.read_to_end(&mut buffer)?;
+    let expr = crate::phase::binary::decode(&buffer)?;
+    let root = ImportRoot::LocalDir(f.parent().unwrap().to_owned());
+    Ok(Parsed(expr, root))
+}
diff --git a/dhall/src/semantics/phase/resolve.rs b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/resolve.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5920f82
--- /dev/null
+++ b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/resolve.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,180 @@
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+use std::path::{Path, PathBuf};
+
+use crate::error::{Error, ImportError};
+use crate::phase::{Normalized, NormalizedExpr, Parsed, Resolved};
+use crate::syntax::{FilePath, ImportLocation, URL};
+
+type Import = crate::syntax::Import<NormalizedExpr>;
+
+/// A root from which to resolve relative imports.
+#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
+pub(crate) enum ImportRoot {
+    LocalDir(PathBuf),
+}
+
+type ImportCache = HashMap<Import, Normalized>;
+
+pub(crate) type ImportStack = Vec<Import>;
+
+fn resolve_import(
+    import: &Import,
+    root: &ImportRoot,
+    import_cache: &mut ImportCache,
+    import_stack: &ImportStack,
+) -> Result<Normalized, ImportError> {
+    use self::ImportRoot::*;
+    use crate::syntax::FilePrefix::*;
+    use crate::syntax::ImportLocation::*;
+    let cwd = match root {
+        LocalDir(cwd) => cwd,
+    };
+    match &import.location {
+        Local(prefix, path) => {
+            let path_buf: PathBuf = path.file_path.iter().collect();
+            let path_buf = match prefix {
+                // TODO: fail gracefully
+                Parent => cwd.parent().unwrap().join(path_buf),
+                Here => cwd.join(path_buf),
+                _ => unimplemented!("{:?}", import),
+            };
+            Ok(load_import(&path_buf, import_cache, import_stack).map_err(
+                |e| ImportError::Recursive(import.clone(), Box::new(e)),
+            )?)
+        }
+        _ => unimplemented!("{:?}", import),
+    }
+}
+
+fn load_import(
+    f: &Path,
+    import_cache: &mut ImportCache,
+    import_stack: &ImportStack,
+) -> Result<Normalized, Error> {
+    Ok(
+        do_resolve_expr(Parsed::parse_file(f)?, import_cache, import_stack)?
+            .typecheck()?
+            .normalize(),
+    )
+}
+
+fn do_resolve_expr(
+    parsed: Parsed,
+    import_cache: &mut ImportCache,
+    import_stack: &ImportStack,
+) -> Result<Resolved, ImportError> {
+    let Parsed(mut expr, root) = parsed;
+    let mut resolve = |import: Import| -> Result<Normalized, ImportError> {
+        if import_stack.contains(&import) {
+            return Err(ImportError::ImportCycle(import_stack.clone(), import));
+        }
+        match import_cache.get(&import) {
+            Some(expr) => Ok(expr.clone()),
+            None => {
+                // Copy the import stack and push the current import
+                let mut import_stack = import_stack.clone();
+                import_stack.push(import.clone());
+
+                // Resolve the import recursively
+                let expr = resolve_import(
+                    &import,
+                    &root,
+                    import_cache,
+                    &import_stack,
+                )?;
+
+                // Add the import to the cache
+                import_cache.insert(import, expr.clone());
+                Ok(expr)
+            }
+        }
+    };
+    expr.traverse_resolve_mut(&mut resolve)?;
+    Ok(Resolved(expr))
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn resolve(e: Parsed) -> Result<Resolved, ImportError> {
+    do_resolve_expr(e, &mut HashMap::new(), &Vec::new())
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn skip_resolve_expr(
+    parsed: Parsed,
+) -> Result<Resolved, ImportError> {
+    let mut expr = parsed.0;
+    let mut resolve = |import: Import| -> Result<Normalized, ImportError> {
+        Err(ImportError::UnexpectedImport(import))
+    };
+    expr.traverse_resolve_mut(&mut resolve)?;
+    Ok(Resolved(expr))
+}
+
+pub trait Canonicalize {
+    fn canonicalize(&self) -> Self;
+}
+
+impl Canonicalize for FilePath {
+    fn canonicalize(&self) -> FilePath {
+        let mut file_path = Vec::new();
+        let mut file_path_components = self.file_path.clone().into_iter();
+
+        loop {
+            let component = file_path_components.next();
+            match component.as_ref() {
+                // ───────────────────
+                // canonicalize(ε) = ε
+                None => break,
+
+                // canonicalize(directory₀) = directory₁
+                // ───────────────────────────────────────
+                // canonicalize(directory₀/.) = directory₁
+                Some(c) if c == "." => continue,
+
+                Some(c) if c == ".." => match file_path_components.next() {
+                    // canonicalize(directory₀) = ε
+                    // ────────────────────────────
+                    // canonicalize(directory₀/..) = /..
+                    None => file_path.push("..".to_string()),
+
+                    // canonicalize(directory₀) = directory₁/..
+                    // ──────────────────────────────────────────────
+                    // canonicalize(directory₀/..) = directory₁/../..
+                    Some(ref c) if c == ".." => {
+                        file_path.push("..".to_string());
+                        file_path.push("..".to_string());
+                    }
+
+                    // canonicalize(directory₀) = directory₁/component
+                    // ───────────────────────────────────────────────  ; If "component" is not
+                    // canonicalize(directory₀/..) = directory₁         ; ".."
+                    Some(_) => continue,
+                },
+
+                // canonicalize(directory₀) = directory₁
+                // ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────  ; If no other
+                // canonicalize(directory₀/component) = directory₁/component  ; rule matches
+                Some(c) => file_path.push(c.clone()),
+            }
+        }
+
+        FilePath { file_path }
+    }
+}
+
+impl<SE: Copy> Canonicalize for ImportLocation<SE> {
+    fn canonicalize(&self) -> ImportLocation<SE> {
+        match self {
+            ImportLocation::Local(prefix, file) => {
+                ImportLocation::Local(*prefix, file.canonicalize())
+            }
+            ImportLocation::Remote(url) => ImportLocation::Remote(URL {
+                scheme: url.scheme,
+                authority: url.authority.clone(),
+                path: url.path.canonicalize(),
+                query: url.query.clone(),
+                headers: url.headers.clone(),
+            }),
+            ImportLocation::Env(name) => ImportLocation::Env(name.to_string()),
+            ImportLocation::Missing => ImportLocation::Missing,
+        }
+    }
+}
diff --git a/dhall/src/semantics/phase/typecheck.rs b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/typecheck.rs
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9a41be9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/dhall/src/semantics/phase/typecheck.rs
@@ -0,0 +1,815 @@
+use std::cmp::max;
+use std::collections::HashMap;
+
+use crate::syntax::{
+    Builtin, Const, Expr, ExprF, InterpolatedTextContents, Label, RawExpr, Span,
+};
+
+use crate::core::context::TypecheckContext;
+use crate::core::value::Value;
+use crate::core::valuef::ValueF;
+use crate::core::var::{Shift, Subst};
+use crate::error::{TypeError, TypeMessage};
+use crate::phase::Normalized;
+
+fn tck_pi_type(
+    ctx: &TypecheckContext,
+    x: Label,
+    tx: Value,
+    te: Value,
+) -> Result<Value, TypeError> {
+    use crate::error::TypeMessage::*;
+    let ctx2 = ctx.insert_type(&x, tx.clone());
+
+    let ka = match tx.get_type()?.as_const() {
+        Some(k) => k,
+        _ => return Err(TypeError::new(ctx, InvalidInputType(tx))),
+    };
+
+    let kb = match te.get_type()?.as_const() {
+        Some(k) => k,
+        _ => {
+            return Err(TypeError::new(
+                &ctx2,
+                InvalidOutputType(te.get_type()?),
+            ))
+        }
+    };
+
+    let k = function_check(ka, kb);
+
+    Ok(Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+        ValueF::Pi(x.into(), tx, te),
+        Value::from_const(k),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn tck_record_type(
+    ctx: &TypecheckContext,
+    kts: impl IntoIterator<Item = Result<(Label, Value), TypeError>>,
+) -> Result<Value, TypeError> {
+    use crate::error::TypeMessage::*;
+    use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
+    let mut new_kts = HashMap::new();
+    // An empty record type has type Type
+    let mut k = Const::Type;
+    for e in kts {
+        let (x, t) = e?;
+        // Construct the union of the contained `Const`s
+        match t.get_type()?.as_const() {
+            Some(k2) => k = max(k, k2),
+            None => return Err(TypeError::new(ctx, InvalidFieldType(x, t))),
+        }
+        // Check for duplicated entries
+        let entry = new_kts.entry(x);
+        match &entry {
+            Entry::Occupied(_) => {
+                return Err(TypeError::new(ctx, RecordTypeDuplicateField))
+            }
+            Entry::Vacant(_) => entry.or_insert_with(|| t),
+        };
+    }
+
+    Ok(Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+        ValueF::RecordType(new_kts),
+        Value::from_const(k),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn tck_union_type<Iter>(
+    ctx: &TypecheckContext,
+    kts: Iter,
+) -> Result<Value, TypeError>
+where
+    Iter: IntoIterator<Item = Result<(Label, Option<Value>), TypeError>>,
+{
+    use crate::error::TypeMessage::*;
+    use std::collections::hash_map::Entry;
+    let mut new_kts = HashMap::new();
+    // Check that all types are the same const
+    let mut k = None;
+    for e in kts {
+        let (x, t) = e?;
+        if let Some(t) = &t {
+            match (k, t.get_type()?.as_const()) {
+                (None, Some(k2)) => k = Some(k2),
+                (Some(k1), Some(k2)) if k1 == k2 => {}
+                _ => {
+                    return Err(TypeError::new(
+                        ctx,
+                        InvalidFieldType(x, t.clone()),
+                    ))
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        let entry = new_kts.entry(x);
+        match &entry {
+            Entry::Occupied(_) => {
+                return Err(TypeError::new(ctx, UnionTypeDuplicateField))
+            }
+            Entry::Vacant(_) => entry.or_insert_with(|| t),
+        };
+    }
+
+    // An empty union type has type Type;
+    // an union type with only unary variants also has type Type
+    let k = k.unwrap_or(Const::Type);
+
+    Ok(Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+        ValueF::UnionType(new_kts),
+        Value::from_const(k),
+    ))
+}
+
+fn function_check(a: Const, b: Const) -> Const {
+    if b == Const::Type {
+        Const::Type
+    } else {
+        max(a, b)
+    }
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn const_to_value(c: Const) -> Value {
+    let v = ValueF::Const(c);
+    match c {
+        Const::Type => {
+            Value::from_valuef_and_type(v, const_to_value(Const::Kind))
+        }
+        Const::Kind => {
+            Value::from_valuef_and_type(v, const_to_value(Const::Sort))
+        }
+        Const::Sort => Value::const_sort(),
+    }
+}
+
+pub fn rc<E>(x: RawExpr<E>) -> Expr<E> {
+    Expr::new(x, Span::Artificial)
+}
+
+// Ad-hoc macro to help construct the types of builtins
+macro_rules! make_type {
+    (Type) => { ExprF::Const(Const::Type) };
+    (Bool) => { ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Bool) };
+    (Natural) => { ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Natural) };
+    (Integer) => { ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Integer) };
+    (Double) => { ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Double) };
+    (Text) => { ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Text) };
+    ($var:ident) => {
+        ExprF::Var(crate::syntax::V(stringify!($var).into(), 0))
+    };
+    (Optional $ty:ident) => {
+        ExprF::App(
+            rc(ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::Optional)),
+            rc(make_type!($ty))
+        )
+    };
+    (List $($rest:tt)*) => {
+        ExprF::App(
+            rc(ExprF::Builtin(Builtin::List)),
+            rc(make_type!($($rest)*))
+        )
+    };
+    ({ $($label:ident : $ty:ident),* }) => {{
+        let mut kts = crate::syntax::map::DupTreeMap::new();
+        $(
+            kts.insert(
+                Label::from(stringify!($label)),
+                rc(make_type!($ty)),
+            );
+        )*
+        ExprF::RecordType(kts)
+    }};
+    ($ty:ident -> $($rest:tt)*) => {
+        ExprF::Pi(
+            "_".into(),
+            rc(make_type!($ty)),
+            rc(make_type!($($rest)*))
+        )
+    };
+    (($($arg:tt)*) -> $($rest:tt)*) => {
+        ExprF::Pi(
+            "_".into(),
+            rc(make_type!($($arg)*)),
+            rc(make_type!($($rest)*))
+        )
+    };
+    (forall ($var:ident : $($ty:tt)*) -> $($rest:tt)*) => {
+        ExprF::Pi(
+            stringify!($var).into(),
+            rc(make_type!($($ty)*)),
+            rc(make_type!($($rest)*))
+        )
+    };
+}
+
+fn type_of_builtin<E>(b: Builtin) -> Expr<E> {
+    use crate::syntax::Builtin::*;
+    rc(match b {
+        Bool | Natural | Integer | Double | Text => make_type!(Type),
+        List | Optional => make_type!(
+            Type -> Type
+        ),
+
+        NaturalFold => make_type!(
+            Natural ->
+            forall (natural: Type) ->
+            forall (succ: natural -> natural) ->
+            forall (zero: natural) ->
+            natural
+        ),
+        NaturalBuild => make_type!(
+            (forall (natural: Type) ->
+                forall (succ: natural -> natural) ->
+                forall (zero: natural) ->
+                natural) ->
+            Natural
+        ),
+        NaturalIsZero | NaturalEven | NaturalOdd => make_type!(
+            Natural -> Bool
+        ),
+        NaturalToInteger => make_type!(Natural -> Integer),
+        NaturalShow => make_type!(Natural -> Text),
+        NaturalSubtract => make_type!(Natural -> Natural -> Natural),
+
+        IntegerToDouble => make_type!(Integer -> Double),
+        IntegerShow => make_type!(Integer -> Text),
+        DoubleShow => make_type!(Double -> Text),
+        TextShow => make_type!(Text -> Text),
+
+        ListBuild => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) ->
+            (forall (list: Type) ->
+                forall (cons: a -> list -> list) ->
+                forall (nil: list) ->
+                list) ->
+            List a
+        ),
+        ListFold => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) ->
+            (List a) ->
+            forall (list: Type) ->
+            forall (cons: a -> list -> list) ->
+            forall (nil: list) ->
+            list
+        ),
+        ListLength => make_type!(forall (a: Type) -> (List a) -> Natural),
+        ListHead | ListLast => {
+            make_type!(forall (a: Type) -> (List a) -> Optional a)
+        }
+        ListIndexed => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) ->
+            (List a) ->
+            List { index: Natural, value: a }
+        ),
+        ListReverse => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) -> (List a) -> List a
+        ),
+
+        OptionalBuild => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) ->
+            (forall (optional: Type) ->
+                forall (just: a -> optional) ->
+                forall (nothing: optional) ->
+                optional) ->
+            Optional a
+        ),
+        OptionalFold => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) ->
+            (Optional a) ->
+            forall (optional: Type) ->
+            forall (just: a -> optional) ->
+            forall (nothing: optional) ->
+            optional
+        ),
+        OptionalNone => make_type!(
+            forall (a: Type) -> Optional a
+        ),
+    })
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn builtin_to_value(b: Builtin) -> Value {
+    let ctx = TypecheckContext::new();
+    Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+        ValueF::from_builtin(b),
+        type_with(&ctx, type_of_builtin(b)).unwrap(),
+    )
+}
+
+/// Type-check an expression and return the expression alongside its type if type-checking
+/// succeeded, or an error if type-checking failed.
+/// Some normalization is done while typechecking, so the returned expression might be partially
+/// normalized as well.
+fn type_with(
+    ctx: &TypecheckContext,
+    e: Expr<Normalized>,
+) -> Result<Value, TypeError> {
+    use crate::syntax::ExprF::{Annot, Embed, Lam, Let, Pi, Var};
+    let span = e.span();
+
+    Ok(match e.as_ref() {
+        Lam(var, annot, body) => {
+            let annot = type_with(ctx, annot.clone())?;
+            let ctx2 = ctx.insert_type(var, annot.clone());
+            let body = type_with(&ctx2, body.clone())?;
+            let body_type = body.get_type()?;
+            Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                ValueF::Lam(var.clone().into(), annot.clone(), body),
+                tck_pi_type(ctx, var.clone(), annot, body_type)?,
+            )
+        }
+        Pi(x, ta, tb) => {
+            let ta = type_with(ctx, ta.clone())?;
+            let ctx2 = ctx.insert_type(x, ta.clone());
+            let tb = type_with(&ctx2, tb.clone())?;
+            return tck_pi_type(ctx, x.clone(), ta, tb);
+        }
+        Let(x, t, v, e) => {
+            let v = if let Some(t) = t {
+                t.rewrap(Annot(v.clone(), t.clone()))
+            } else {
+                v.clone()
+            };
+
+            let v = type_with(ctx, v)?;
+            return type_with(&ctx.insert_value(x, v.clone())?, e.clone());
+        }
+        Embed(p) => p.clone().into_typed().into_value(),
+        Var(var) => match ctx.lookup(&var) {
+            Some(typed) => typed.clone(),
+            None => {
+                return Err(TypeError::new(
+                    ctx,
+                    TypeMessage::UnboundVariable(span),
+                ))
+            }
+        },
+        e => {
+            // Typecheck recursively all subexpressions
+            let expr = e.traverse_ref_with_special_handling_of_binders(
+                |e| type_with(ctx, e.clone()),
+                |_, _| unreachable!(),
+            )?;
+            type_last_layer(ctx, expr, span)?
+        }
+    })
+}
+
+/// When all sub-expressions have been typed, check the remaining toplevel
+/// layer.
+fn type_last_layer(
+    ctx: &TypecheckContext,
+    e: ExprF<Value, Normalized>,
+    span: Span,
+) -> Result<Value, TypeError> {
+    use crate::error::TypeMessage::*;
+    use crate::syntax::BinOp::*;
+    use crate::syntax::Builtin::*;
+    use crate::syntax::Const::Type;
+    use crate::syntax::ExprF::*;
+    let mkerr = |msg: TypeMessage| Err(TypeError::new(ctx, msg));
+
+    /// Intermediary return type
+    enum Ret {
+        /// Returns the contained value as is
+        RetWhole(Value),
+        /// Returns the input expression `e` with the contained value as its type
+        RetTypeOnly(Value),
+    }
+    use Ret::*;
+
+    let ret = match &e {
+        Import(_) => unreachable!(
+            "There should remain no imports in a resolved expression"
+        ),
+        Lam(_, _, _) | Pi(_, _, _) | Let(_, _, _, _) | Embed(_) | Var(_) => {
+            unreachable!()
+        }
+        App(f, a) => {
+            let tf = f.get_type()?;
+            let tf_borrow = tf.as_whnf();
+            let (x, tx, tb) = match &*tf_borrow {
+                ValueF::Pi(x, tx, tb) => (x, tx, tb),
+                _ => return mkerr(NotAFunction(f.clone())),
+            };
+            if &a.get_type()? != tx {
+                return mkerr(TypeMismatch(f.clone(), tx.clone(), a.clone()));
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(tb.subst_shift(&x.into(), a))
+        }
+        Annot(x, t) => {
+            if &x.get_type()? != t {
+                return mkerr(AnnotMismatch(x.clone(), t.clone()));
+            }
+            RetWhole(x.clone())
+        }
+        Assert(t) => {
+            match &*t.as_whnf() {
+                ValueF::Equivalence(x, y) if x == y => {}
+                ValueF::Equivalence(x, y) => {
+                    return mkerr(AssertMismatch(x.clone(), y.clone()))
+                }
+                _ => return mkerr(AssertMustTakeEquivalence),
+            }
+            RetTypeOnly(t.clone())
+        }
+        BoolIf(x, y, z) => {
+            if *x.get_type()?.as_whnf() != ValueF::from_builtin(Bool) {
+                return mkerr(InvalidPredicate(x.clone()));
+            }
+
+            if y.get_type()?.get_type()?.as_const() != Some(Type) {
+                return mkerr(IfBranchMustBeTerm(true, y.clone()));
+            }
+
+            if z.get_type()?.get_type()?.as_const() != Some(Type) {
+                return mkerr(IfBranchMustBeTerm(false, z.clone()));
+            }
+
+            if y.get_type()? != z.get_type()? {
+                return mkerr(IfBranchMismatch(y.clone(), z.clone()));
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(y.get_type()?)
+        }
+        EmptyListLit(t) => {
+            match &*t.as_whnf() {
+                ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(crate::syntax::Builtin::List, args)
+                    if args.len() == 1 => {}
+                _ => return mkerr(InvalidListType(t.clone())),
+            }
+            RetTypeOnly(t.clone())
+        }
+        NEListLit(xs) => {
+            let mut iter = xs.iter().enumerate();
+            let (_, x) = iter.next().unwrap();
+            for (i, y) in iter {
+                if x.get_type()? != y.get_type()? {
+                    return mkerr(InvalidListElement(
+                        i,
+                        x.get_type()?,
+                        y.clone(),
+                    ));
+                }
+            }
+            let t = x.get_type()?;
+            if t.get_type()?.as_const() != Some(Type) {
+                return mkerr(InvalidListType(t));
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(Value::from_builtin(crate::syntax::Builtin::List).app(t))
+        }
+        SomeLit(x) => {
+            let t = x.get_type()?;
+            if t.get_type()?.as_const() != Some(Type) {
+                return mkerr(InvalidOptionalType(t));
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(
+                Value::from_builtin(crate::syntax::Builtin::Optional).app(t),
+            )
+        }
+        RecordType(kts) => RetWhole(tck_record_type(
+            ctx,
+            kts.iter().map(|(x, t)| Ok((x.clone(), t.clone()))),
+        )?),
+        UnionType(kts) => RetWhole(tck_union_type(
+            ctx,
+            kts.iter().map(|(x, t)| Ok((x.clone(), t.clone()))),
+        )?),
+        RecordLit(kvs) => RetTypeOnly(tck_record_type(
+            ctx,
+            kvs.iter().map(|(x, v)| Ok((x.clone(), v.get_type()?))),
+        )?),
+        Field(r, x) => {
+            match &*r.get_type()?.as_whnf() {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => match kts.get(&x) {
+                    Some(tth) => {
+                        RetTypeOnly(tth.clone())
+                    },
+                    None => return mkerr(MissingRecordField(x.clone(),
+                                        r.clone())),
+                },
+                // TODO: branch here only when r.get_type() is a Const
+                _ => {
+                    match &*r.as_whnf() {
+                        ValueF::UnionType(kts) => match kts.get(&x) {
+                            // Constructor has type T -> < x: T, ... >
+                            Some(Some(t)) => {
+                                RetTypeOnly(
+                                    tck_pi_type(
+                                        ctx,
+                                        "_".into(),
+                                        t.clone(),
+                                        r.under_binder(Label::from("_")),
+                                    )?
+                                )
+                            },
+                            Some(None) => {
+                                RetTypeOnly(r.clone())
+                            },
+                            None => {
+                                return mkerr(MissingUnionField(
+                                    x.clone(),
+                                    r.clone(),
+                                ))
+                            },
+                        },
+                        _ => {
+                            return mkerr(NotARecord(
+                                x.clone(),
+                                r.clone()
+                            ))
+                        },
+                    }
+                }
+                // _ => mkerr(NotARecord(
+                //     x,
+                //     r?,
+                // )),
+            }
+        }
+        Const(c) => RetWhole(const_to_value(*c)),
+        Builtin(b) => RetWhole(builtin_to_value(*b)),
+        BoolLit(_) => RetTypeOnly(builtin_to_value(Bool)),
+        NaturalLit(_) => RetTypeOnly(builtin_to_value(Natural)),
+        IntegerLit(_) => RetTypeOnly(builtin_to_value(Integer)),
+        DoubleLit(_) => RetTypeOnly(builtin_to_value(Double)),
+        TextLit(interpolated) => {
+            let text_type = builtin_to_value(Text);
+            for contents in interpolated.iter() {
+                use InterpolatedTextContents::Expr;
+                if let Expr(x) = contents {
+                    if x.get_type()? != text_type {
+                        return mkerr(InvalidTextInterpolation(x.clone()));
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            RetTypeOnly(text_type)
+        }
+        BinOp(RightBiasedRecordMerge, l, r) => {
+            use crate::phase::normalize::merge_maps;
+
+            let l_type = l.get_type()?;
+            let r_type = r.get_type()?;
+
+            // Extract the LHS record type
+            let l_type_borrow = l_type.as_whnf();
+            let kts_x = match &*l_type_borrow {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => return mkerr(MustCombineRecord(l.clone())),
+            };
+
+            // Extract the RHS record type
+            let r_type_borrow = r_type.as_whnf();
+            let kts_y = match &*r_type_borrow {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => return mkerr(MustCombineRecord(r.clone())),
+            };
+
+            // Union the two records, prefering
+            // the values found in the RHS.
+            let kts = merge_maps::<_, _, _, !>(kts_x, kts_y, |_, _, r_t| {
+                Ok(r_t.clone())
+            })?;
+
+            // Construct the final record type from the union
+            RetTypeOnly(tck_record_type(
+                ctx,
+                kts.into_iter().map(|(x, v)| Ok((x.clone(), v))),
+            )?)
+        }
+        BinOp(RecursiveRecordMerge, l, r) => RetTypeOnly(type_last_layer(
+            ctx,
+            ExprF::BinOp(
+                RecursiveRecordTypeMerge,
+                l.get_type()?,
+                r.get_type()?,
+            ),
+            Span::Artificial,
+        )?),
+        BinOp(RecursiveRecordTypeMerge, l, r) => {
+            use crate::phase::normalize::merge_maps;
+
+            // Extract the LHS record type
+            let borrow_l = l.as_whnf();
+            let kts_x = match &*borrow_l {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => {
+                    return mkerr(RecordTypeMergeRequiresRecordType(l.clone()))
+                }
+            };
+
+            // Extract the RHS record type
+            let borrow_r = r.as_whnf();
+            let kts_y = match &*borrow_r {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => {
+                    return mkerr(RecordTypeMergeRequiresRecordType(r.clone()))
+                }
+            };
+
+            // Ensure that the records combine without a type error
+            let kts = merge_maps(
+                kts_x,
+                kts_y,
+                // If the Label exists for both records, then we hit the recursive case.
+                |_, l: &Value, r: &Value| {
+                    type_last_layer(
+                        ctx,
+                        ExprF::BinOp(
+                            RecursiveRecordTypeMerge,
+                            l.clone(),
+                            r.clone(),
+                        ),
+                        Span::Artificial,
+                    )
+                },
+            )?;
+
+            RetWhole(tck_record_type(ctx, kts.into_iter().map(Ok))?)
+        }
+        BinOp(o @ ListAppend, l, r) => {
+            match &*l.get_type()?.as_whnf() {
+                ValueF::AppliedBuiltin(List, _) => {}
+                _ => return mkerr(BinOpTypeMismatch(*o, l.clone())),
+            }
+
+            if l.get_type()? != r.get_type()? {
+                return mkerr(BinOpTypeMismatch(*o, r.clone()));
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(l.get_type()?)
+        }
+        BinOp(Equivalence, l, r) => {
+            if l.get_type()?.get_type()?.as_const() != Some(Type) {
+                return mkerr(EquivalenceArgumentMustBeTerm(true, l.clone()));
+            }
+            if r.get_type()?.get_type()?.as_const() != Some(Type) {
+                return mkerr(EquivalenceArgumentMustBeTerm(false, r.clone()));
+            }
+
+            if l.get_type()? != r.get_type()? {
+                return mkerr(EquivalenceTypeMismatch(r.clone(), l.clone()));
+            }
+
+            RetWhole(Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                ValueF::Equivalence(l.clone(), r.clone()),
+                Value::from_const(Type),
+            ))
+        }
+        BinOp(o, l, r) => {
+            let t = builtin_to_value(match o {
+                BoolAnd => Bool,
+                BoolOr => Bool,
+                BoolEQ => Bool,
+                BoolNE => Bool,
+                NaturalPlus => Natural,
+                NaturalTimes => Natural,
+                TextAppend => Text,
+                ListAppend => unreachable!(),
+                RightBiasedRecordMerge => unreachable!(),
+                RecursiveRecordMerge => unreachable!(),
+                RecursiveRecordTypeMerge => unreachable!(),
+                ImportAlt => unreachable!("There should remain no import alternatives in a resolved expression"),
+                Equivalence => unreachable!(),
+            });
+
+            if l.get_type()? != t {
+                return mkerr(BinOpTypeMismatch(*o, l.clone()));
+            }
+
+            if r.get_type()? != t {
+                return mkerr(BinOpTypeMismatch(*o, r.clone()));
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(t)
+        }
+        Merge(record, union, type_annot) => {
+            let record_type = record.get_type()?;
+            let record_borrow = record_type.as_whnf();
+            let handlers = match &*record_borrow {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => return mkerr(Merge1ArgMustBeRecord(record.clone())),
+            };
+
+            let union_type = union.get_type()?;
+            let union_borrow = union_type.as_whnf();
+            let variants = match &*union_borrow {
+                ValueF::UnionType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => return mkerr(Merge2ArgMustBeUnion(union.clone())),
+            };
+
+            let mut inferred_type = None;
+            for (x, handler_type) in handlers {
+                let handler_return_type =
+                    match variants.get(x) {
+                        // Union alternative with type
+                        Some(Some(variant_type)) => {
+                            let handler_type_borrow = handler_type.as_whnf();
+                            let (x, tx, tb) = match &*handler_type_borrow {
+                                ValueF::Pi(x, tx, tb) => (x, tx, tb),
+                                _ => {
+                                    return mkerr(NotAFunction(
+                                        handler_type.clone(),
+                                    ))
+                                }
+                            };
+
+                            if variant_type != tx {
+                                return mkerr(TypeMismatch(
+                                    handler_type.clone(),
+                                    tx.clone(),
+                                    variant_type.clone(),
+                                ));
+                            }
+
+                            // Extract `tb` from under the `x` binder. Fails is `x` was free in `tb`.
+                            match tb.over_binder(x) {
+                                Some(x) => x,
+                                None => return mkerr(
+                                    MergeHandlerReturnTypeMustNotBeDependent,
+                                ),
+                            }
+                        }
+                        // Union alternative without type
+                        Some(None) => handler_type.clone(),
+                        None => {
+                            return mkerr(MergeHandlerMissingVariant(x.clone()))
+                        }
+                    };
+                match &inferred_type {
+                    None => inferred_type = Some(handler_return_type),
+                    Some(t) => {
+                        if t != &handler_return_type {
+                            return mkerr(MergeHandlerTypeMismatch);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+            for x in variants.keys() {
+                if !handlers.contains_key(x) {
+                    return mkerr(MergeVariantMissingHandler(x.clone()));
+                }
+            }
+
+            match (inferred_type, type_annot) {
+                (Some(ref t1), Some(t2)) => {
+                    if t1 != t2 {
+                        return mkerr(MergeAnnotMismatch);
+                    }
+                    RetTypeOnly(t2.clone())
+                }
+                (Some(t), None) => RetTypeOnly(t),
+                (None, Some(t)) => RetTypeOnly(t.clone()),
+                (None, None) => return mkerr(MergeEmptyNeedsAnnotation),
+            }
+        }
+        ToMap(_, _) => unimplemented!("toMap"),
+        Projection(record, labels) => {
+            let record_type = record.get_type()?;
+            let record_type_borrow = record_type.as_whnf();
+            let kts = match &*record_type_borrow {
+                ValueF::RecordType(kts) => kts,
+                _ => return mkerr(ProjectionMustBeRecord),
+            };
+
+            let mut new_kts = HashMap::new();
+            for l in labels {
+                match kts.get(l) {
+                    None => return mkerr(ProjectionMissingEntry),
+                    Some(t) => new_kts.insert(l.clone(), t.clone()),
+                };
+            }
+
+            RetTypeOnly(Value::from_valuef_and_type(
+                ValueF::RecordType(new_kts),
+                record_type.get_type()?,
+            ))
+        }
+        ProjectionByExpr(_, _) => unimplemented!("selection by expression"),
+    };
+
+    Ok(match ret {
+        RetTypeOnly(typ) => Value::from_valuef_and_type_and_span(
+            ValueF::PartialExpr(e),
+            typ,
+            span,
+        ),
+        RetWhole(v) => v.with_span(span),
+    })
+}
+
+/// `type_of` is the same as `type_with` with an empty context, meaning that the
+/// expression must be closed (i.e. no free variables), otherwise type-checking
+/// will fail.
+pub(crate) fn typecheck(e: Expr<Normalized>) -> Result<Value, TypeError> {
+    type_with(&TypecheckContext::new(), e)
+}
+
+pub(crate) fn typecheck_with(
+    expr: Expr<Normalized>,
+    ty: Expr<Normalized>,
+) -> Result<Value, TypeError> {
+    typecheck(expr.rewrap(ExprF::Annot(expr.clone(), ty)))
+}